An Investigation of the Factors Affecting the Period of a Pendulum :: Papers

An Investigation of the Factors Affecting the Period of a Pendulum I could investigate the following factors: * Angle of displacement * Length of string * Pendulum weight I am going to investigate and see if varying the length of string will affect the period of the pendulum. My prediction is: The longer the string the longer the period. The period will be longer as the pendulum has farther to travel. My theory is demonstrated below. Pendulum A has a shorter string. This gives it a shorter period. Pendulum B has a longer string and has a much larger period as it has farther to travel to get from X to Y to X which is one period. [IMAGE] I made my prediction based on a previous experiment I have done. The length affected the period as stated above and I think this will happen again in this experiment. I looked at a clock with a pendulum to see how it worked. I found that to change the speed of a second you adjust the length of the pole which the pendulum hangs from, so I also based my prediction on that as it is the same principle. I set up a trial experiment to test out the following: * Which angle of displacement to use (e.g. 90Â °) * How many readings to take * Which lengths of string to measure (e.g. every 10cm) * Where to carry out the experiment (on a desk/floor etc..) To ensure the test is fair I am going to: * Use the same piece of string * Use the same weight pendulum (preferably the exact same pendulum) * Make sure the string is measured accurately To ensure the test is safe I am going to: * Use a sensible angle of displacement * Not to swing the pendulum near others To ensure the test is accurate I am going to:

The Concept of Omoiyari (Altruistic Sensitivity) in Japanese Relational Communication

Intercultural Communication Studies XV: 1 2006 Hara The Concept of Omoiyari (Altruistic Sensitivity) in Japanese Relational Communication Kazuya Hara, Meikai University, Japan Abstract It is essential to explore Japanese concepts in Japanese languages as intellectual tools for future studies in Asia. In order to develop Asian theories of communication, therefore, Asian communication scholars ought to engage in this important task.This paper presents such an attempt by conceptualizing the concept of omoiyari for a Japanese theory of relational communication. In social psychology, the Japanese concept of omoiyari has been examined in terms of altruism, sympathy, empathy, and prosocial behavior, and a variety of cognitive models of prosocial behavior arousal have been proposed. In the field of communication studies, however, the concept of omoiyari has not attracted much scholarly attention, although aspects of harmonius Japanese communication are well documented.By synthesizing the rel evant literature on omoiyari across disciplines, then, this paper formulates a definition of omoiyari for Japanese communication research, lays out its basic assumptions, and characterizes it in light of four major semantic areas of omoiyari: (1) prayer, (2) encouragement, (3) help, and (4) support. Introduction â€Å"Cast your bread upon the waters and it will return to you. † –a saying reflecting omoiyari When Japanese people feel another’s kindness toward them and see someone’s warm-hearted feelings, thoughts, and behaviors, they appreciate that person’s omoiyari.The primary meaning of omoiyari is â€Å"an individual’s sensitivity to imagine another’s feelings and personal affairs, including his or her circumstances† (Shinmura, 1991, p. 387, translated by Hara). Omoiyari has attracted non-Japanese scholars’ attention as one of the most important ideas in Japanese cultural value and communication (e. g. , Lebra, 1976; Travis, 1998; Wierzbicka, 1997). The word omoiyari is often seen on signs bearing a school motto and at police stations. In many surveys of public opinion, Japanese people have listed omoiyari as a key concept on which they put high value.Although omoiyari -based behavior and activity are seen across cultures, Japanese people are the ones who put the highest value on omoiyari all over the world (Kikuchi, 1988; Akanuma, 2004). This humane omoiyari concept has been emphasized in moral education at schools in Japan as the guiding principle to communicate with others (Ito, 1998a; 1998b). In educational psychology in Japan, the importance of omoiyari has been emphasized with its developmental views of children (e. g. , Kikuchi, 1988).Recent inhumane crimes such as ill-treatment bullying or indiscriminate murder on the street are caused by the lack of omoiyari, and the importance of omoiyari has undergone a reevaluation in terms of education in the schools (Kanno, 1988). Psychological asp ects of omoiyari such as empathy and sympathy have been studied, 24 Intercultural Communication Studies XV: 1 2006 Hara and its behavior has been studied as prosocial behavior, altruistic behavior, and helping behavior in social psychology (e. . , Harada, 1991; Kikuchi, 1998; Matsui, 1991). Although the term â€Å"omoiyari behavior† is not generally used as a technical term in social psychology (Matsui, 1991), the titles of several studies on these concepts are comprehensively translated into Japanese using the word omoiyari (e. g. , Eisenberg & Mussen, 1989; Hoffman, 2001; Jones, 1993). Additionally, cultural psychologists Uchida and Kitayama (2001) developed a measurement scale of omoiyari from the viewpoint of sympathy.In the field of communication studies, although aspects of harmonious communication have been well-researched, only a few studies have focused on omoiyari as an important factor of Japanese harmonious communication. For example, Donahue (1998) argues that om oiyari is a psychological factor in Japanese indirect communication. In health communication, Kakai (2002) argues that Japanese prefer ambiguity or not disclosing of cancer to their family members. Behind such indirect communication and style is the psychological and cultural background of omoiyari.These studies refer to the study on Japanese empathy by anthropologist Lebra (1976) and her definition and observation of omoiyari. Although previous studies have contributed to pointing out the importance of omoiyari in Japanese mental culture and behavioral culture, there are three points to be further considered. First, many psychological studies based on Western concepts have not proposed clear conceptual definitions of omoiyari, so there is no consensus on its definition.Second, studies on omoiyari in other fields have only argued one aspect of omoiyari with its case contexts; we might be able to explore multi-aspects of omoiyari, taking various communication contexts and levels into consideration. Third, negative aspects of omoiyari have not been referred to adequately in previous studies on omoiyari. For example, there are cases when omoiyari toward others might not be appreciated or accepted by others. In order to develop future studies on omoiyari in Japanese communication, this paper attempts to concisely conceptualize Japanese omoiyari across disciplines.Additionally, the author believes that it is essential to explore Japanese concepts in Japanese languages as intellectual tools for future studies in Asia. In this paper, first, the author will review the relevant concepts in Western psychology which have been argued as omoiyari in Japan. Then, he will articulate Japanese omoiyari with its translation, definition, and major characteristics. Finally, using a diagram, he will propose four semantic areas of omoiyari, taking its communication levels and contexts into consideration.Omoiyari and Its Relevant Concepts The idea of omoiyari has been argued from th e standpoint of the concepts of altruism, sympathy, empathy and prosocial behavior. Although the causal developmental relationship among these concepts is controversial (e. g. , Eisenberg, 1986; Hoffman, 1982; Toi & Baston, 1982), each concept in itself has been regarded as one aspect of omoiyari in Japanese social psychology and communication studies. This means that these concepts are seen as elements of omoiyari, and conversely that omoiyari can be conceptualized with a combination of these concepts.The foundation of omoiyari feelings can be covered with the concept of altruism. Altruism is other-oriented and self-sacrificial (Kerbs, 1975). According to Cohen (1978), altruism refers to an act or desire to offer something gratuitously to others when needed. Cohen indicates that there are three components of altruism: (a) giving, or the desire to do so; (b) empathy; and (c) the absence of any motives of reward from doing the altruistic behavior. 25 Intercultural Communication Studi es XV: 1 2006 Hara Essentially, altruism lies in the motivation to help others and to aid others in their behavior.As this conceptual definition shows, altruism is the source that produces more concrete omoiyari feelings and behavior. Based on altruism, omoiyari seems to comprise both sympathy and empathy (e. g. , Kikuchi, 1991, 1998; Matsui, 1991). Sympathy refers to a concern for another person, agreement with and consideration for the feelings of others, or compassion (DeVito, 1986). It is generally conceived as a reaction to particular contexts such as the sadness or disappointment of others. Another view is that sympathy refers to a feeling for another person, while empathy refers to actually feeling as that person does (DeVito, 1986).Empathy in omoiyari is described in Bruneau’s (1995) definition as â€Å"‘feeling into’ another’s feelings with one’s own, vicariously, and attempting to achieve some I-thou congruence† (p. 87). Empathy imp lies understanding of others through imagining the situation of others (Travis, 1998). Psychological aspects of altruism, empathy, and sympathy are reflected in prosocial behavior. Prosocial behavior generally refers to â€Å"voluntary actions that are intended to help or benefit another individual or group of individuals† (Eisenberg & Mussen, 1989, p. 3).Wispe (1972) suggests that prosocial behavior refers to behaviors that can be described as sympathetic, altruistic, charitable, and so on. Furthermore, prosocial behavior benefits others without anticipating external rewards, and is done under the conditions that it is done either for its own end, or as an act of restitution (Bar-Tal, 1976). Also, as Bar-Tal argues, prosocial behavior should not be carried out as a result of external threat, enforcement, or obligation, but should be due to an individual’s freedom to decide to act in a certain manner or not.Reviewing altruism, empathy, sympathy, and prosocial behavior in human communication, on the basis of altruism, people seem to have feelings of either empathy or sympathy at the stage of intrapersonal communication. Additionally, in the context of communication activities with others, when such feelings are seen in behavior, the behavior is regarded as prosocial behavior. As the findings in Uchida and Kitayama’s (2001) survey indicate, omoiyari as sympathy had a positive relationship with emotional empathy and prosocial behavior. The combination f these concepts seems to help conceptualize aspects of omoiyari. However, since each concept cannot individually cover omoiyari in a comprehensive sense, we need a conceptual definition of omoiyari before applying these concepts to aspects of omoiyari. The Concept of Japanese Omoiyari In Japanese communication, it is often seen that people say â€Å"show omoiyari toward others† when a person does not do so. The word omoiyari is directed toward anybody of the same generation and status, o r toward younger people with regard to both in-group and out-group members.To say â€Å"have omoiyari† to elderly people, on the other hand, sounds arrogant, although the person is thinking â€Å"omoiyari† in his or her mind. In such a situation, it seems appropriate to use the word â€Å"itawari†(caring consideration with respect) instead, even though the person has the word â€Å"omoiyari† in his or her mind. In this section, the author attempts to propose an expedient translation of omoiyari into English which is comprehensible to both Japanese and non-Japanese people. Then, the author will define omoiyari in Japanese communication.Translation of Omoiyari into English It is impossible to translate Japanese omoiyari into English with one word or phrase 26 Intercultural Communication Studies XV: 1 2006 Hara which is comprehensible to both Japanese and non-Japanese people. Even words such as compassion, consideration, thoughtfulness, mercy, and benevolenc e cover only one aspect of Japanese omoiyari. There seem to be two reasons for this difficulty. First, there are different views of omoiyari across cultures.For example, Yamagishi (1995) argues that for Westerners, omoiyari is not â€Å"thoughtfulness† to others, which is occasionally perceived to be unnecessarily imposed by others depriving one’s own right to choose his/her own behavior. Easterners, on the other hand, believe that thoughtfulness-based omoiyari is essential to living a group-oriented life. Secondly, as Travis (1998) points out, English words such as â€Å"considerate† and â€Å"thoughtful,† which are related to omoiyari, do not involve the same kind of â€Å"intuitive† understanding. This intuitive way of communication is also cultivated as intuitive listening and empathic understanding inJapanese ways of communication (Barnland, 1975). As for a neutral and comprehensible translation term, Yamagishi (1995) points out that â€Å"se nsitivity† can represent the feelings of omoiyari that are common to Westerners and Easterners and which do not have the connotation of imposing one’s thought on others. Therefore, in this paper, the author uses his own tentative and expedient translation of omoiyari as â€Å"altruistic sensitivity† taking the definition of altruism, â€Å"concern for the happiness and welfare of other people rather than for your own † (Sinclair, 1987, p. 2) into consideration, regarding altruism as the psychological foundation to produce omoiyari-based feelings such as empathy or sympathy. Defining Omoiyari Omoi in omoiyari means considerate caring for others, while yari is the noun form of the verb yaru, which means sending something to others. Therefore, â€Å"omoiyari † literally means sending one’s altruistic feelings to others. The difference among omoiyari, empathy, and sympathy is that omoiyari implies intuitive understanding and includes behaving in that way (Shinmura, 1991; Travis, 1998; Uchida & Kitayama, 2001).Consideration toward others is not always received, and omoiyari does not expect any reward. If any reward is expected, it is not omoiyari but business-like helping behavior. One of the definitions of omoiyari which is frequently referred to is the one by cultural anthropologist Lebra (1976), which describes omoiyari as â€Å"the ability and willingness to feel what others are feeling, to vicariously experience the pleasure or pain that they are undergoing, and to help them satisfy their wishes†¦without being told verbally†(p. 38).Historical anthropologist Akanuma (2004) states that omoiyari is to guess others’ feelings and pay careful attention to their feelings, accepting what has happened (or will happen) to others as what has happened (or will happen) to myself. Social psychologist Ninomiya (1991) defines omoiyari as voluntary behavior for others’ benefit. The common assumptions underlying all these definitions are that omoiyari is voluntary and that people put high value on sharing feelings with others. As such, intuitive understanding is necessary.In this study, the author will define omoiyari as an intuitive understanding of others’ feelings that will occasionally lead us to conceive what to do or what not to do to others. Taking the conceptual issues of omoiyari into consideration, the author will further argue major characteristics of omoiyari in the following section. Major Characteristics of Omoiyari To have a sense of omoiyari and to behave with omoiyari are regarded as ideal communication in Japanese society. For example, according to a survey by the Ministry of 27 Intercultural Communication Studies XV: 1 2006 HaraEducation in Japan cited in the Yomiuri-shimbun (1994), elementary and junior high school teachers in Japan answered that they put the highest value on omoiyari in moral education. Additionally, in a survey on child-birth in Japan by the Yo miuri-shimbun (2005), 86. 7% of the parents expected their children to be a child with omoiyari. As these data show, to have omoiyari is essential in Japanese relational communication across contexts. In this section, the author will begin to argue major characteristics of omoiyari based on its psychological, behavioral aspects, along with the assumptions of omoiyari in previous studies.Then negative aspects of omoiyari will be briefly mentioned. Finally, four context-based semantic areas of omoiyari in human communication will be proposed. Psychological Aspects of Omoiyari Omoiyari has been considered altruistic feelings or emotional participation in others’ mindds (Eisenberg & Mussen, 1989; Kikuchi, 1988), and there are three characteristics which occasionally lead to actual prosocial behavior. The first is that omoiyari does not include the concept of â€Å"otherness† (Akanuma, 2004). This means that omoiyari means to understand the other’s feelings, not taki ng one’s self-concept into consideration (Otsuka, 1991).In this assumption, there is a Japanese interpersonal view that puts high value on oneness with others. For example, Hamaguchi (1985) argues that Japanese people think that since affectionate mutual aid is essential, people should read mutual true intention, and the relationship once established must be respected as valuable. Oneness with others gets reinforced through mutual omoiyari. The second is that omiyari is neither based on pity from superiority nor on mechanistic give-and-take relations (Otsuka, 1991).The motivation of omoiyari is voluntary, and does not expect gratitude from others (Kikuchi, 1991). If a person expects any reward when they help others, that is not omoiyari. Such a reward-expecting behavior will not be respected but rather despised, and is against the virtue of omoiyari. The third is that the value of omoiyari is evaluated based on purity of consideration of others. It goes without saying that th e purer the consideration is, the more appreciated it is. However, such pure consideration of others occasionally contradicts its behavior.A commonly cited example is that physicians and family members are reluctant to directly disclose terminal diagnoses to patients because of omoiyari (Kakai 2001; Paton & Wicks, 1996). Such communication, which might be regarded as deception, will not be criticized by others because they know the family’s true feelings. Behind this type of communication, there is an unspoken assumption that true and honest feelings will be understood by others even though one’s behavior contradicts his or her psychological feelings. Behavioral Aspects of Omoiyari Omoiyari in behavior has been studied as prosocial behavior in social psychology.Kikuchi (1998) provides four common characteristics of omoiyari based on its psychological assumptions. The first is that omoiyari as prosocial behavior includes the idea of an action which is helpful for others . However, this does not necessarily mean that the prosocial behavior will be willingly accepted by others. The second is that omoiyari as true prosocial behavior is not done with the expectation of a reward from others. This is not a matter of whether a person receives or rejects a reward, but rather the premise that the person had no desire to receive a reward in the first place.The third is that omoiyari-based prosocial behavior is accompanied by a kind of cost or risk of self-sacrifice. The final condition is that omoiyari as prosocial behavior 28 Intercultural Communication Studies XV: 1 2006 Hara should be voluntary. This means that a person is not bound by any sense of duty to others, but is willing to behave prosocially as a choice. Japanese omoiyari behavior is uniquely seen in conflicting situations. For example, it is often stated that Japanese prefer to avoid conflict rather than to try to resolve it. In such a situation, the Japanese are inclined to use mbiguous or euph emistic expressions with their bokashi (ambiguous) logic (Nayayama, 1986), and to use honne (true intentions) and tatemae (public principles) properly (Doi, 1985) so as not to hurt others’ feelings. Such a linguistic feature can be described as â€Å"the language of omoiyari,† and it is listener-oriented (Ando, 1986). Even to enemies, they do not tend to deliver a fatal blow. Such communication styles are represented in proverbs such as teki ni shio wo okuru (to show humanity even to one’s enemy) or bushi no nasake (samurai-like mercy). Omoiyari, however, is not always performed desirably.In the following section, negative aspects of omoiyari will be mentioned with cases that are against its psychological and behavioral assumptions. Negative Aspects of Omoiyari Omoiyari does not always function as we hope. For example, overly imposing omoiyari on others might be a psychological burden or, even worse, an annoyance. This is called osekkai (meddlesome) and is the a ntithesis of empathetic understanding (Lebra, 1976). Especially when the elderly want to meddle in younger people’s affairs, the younger people cannot say â€Å"Please mind on your business. This type of omoiyari could be considered osekkai. In the worst case scenario, when omoiyari is not accepted by the receiver as the source expected, the source might blame the receiver in his or her mind. This is called sakaurami (to think ill of a person who meant to be kind). At the point when the source feels sakaurami, however, his or her kindness to others is no longer regarded as omoiyari. Four Context-Based Semantic Areas of Omoiyari in Human Communication As argued above, omoiyari consists of both affective aspects (altruism, sympathy, empathy) and a behavioral one (prosocial behavior).Using these concepts, the author will attempt to conceptualize four semantic areas of omoiyari. The following figure representing the four areas of omoiyari is based on intrapersonal communication (Areas A and B) and interactive level (Areas C & D). [See next page. ] The fundamental assumption is that Area A and Area B are at the level of intrapersonal communication and cover one’s cognitive and affective aspects. Area C covers the interaction stemming from Area A, and Area D covers the interaction stemming from Area B. Area A and Area C are based on sympathy, while Area B and Area D are based on empathy.Every feeling and behavior by a communicator is based on altruism and with intuition. Area A is the situation where a person is worrying abut someone’s undesirable situation and praying that it will be improved. The feeling is based on altruism and sympathy. In this context, examples such as praying for the recovery of another’s health or sympathizing with the struggle of others are included. In contrast, in Area B, the communicator has a feeling of encouragement in his or her mind, and the feeling is based on altruism and empathy.For example, praying for the success or health of others is included in this area. Area C and Area D cover people’s behavioral aspects in their relational communication and social activities. In these areas, verbal and nonverbal interaction is exchanged, and helping behavior is added when necessary. Area C, which stems from the psychological feelings of Area A, stands for prosocial behavior based on altruism and sympathy. 29 Intercultural Communication Studies XV: 1 2006 Hara Communication activities such as helping behavior or volunteer activities are included in this area.Also, Area D, which stems from the psychological feelings of Area B, is based on altruism and empathy, and includes situations such as supporting other people’s success with one’s own will or participating in activities to share happiness with others. Prosocial Behavior Area C: Help Area D: Support Sympathy – – – – Area A: Prayer Intuition –––– Empathy Area B: Encouragement Altruism Figure 1. Four Context-Based Semantic Areas of Omoiyari in Human Communication Concluding Remarks The primary purpose of this essay was to onceptualize Japanese omoiyari (altruistic sensitivity) with its psychological and behavioral characteristics, and to propose four types of omoiyari (prayer, encouragement, help, and support) from the viewpoint of communication. Although the author was only able to review a portion of the previous literature on omoiyari, he hopes that the essence of omoiyari conceptualized in this paper will contribute to further studies of Japanese relational communication. Based on the conceptualization in this paper, the author expects future studies to be conducted in three areas.First, various communication styles in each of the four semantic areas of omoiyari (prayer, encouragement, help, and support) should be further examined and discussed. Secondly, the possibility of combining these four areas should be further examined using empi rical studies. Third, based on the emic studies on this type of concept all over the world, to seek commonalities of omoiyari views across cultures is strongly suggested. Based on these studies, derived-etic views of altruistic sensitivity are highly anticipated. References Akanuma, K. (2004). Nihonjin wa naze gambaru noka (Why do the Japanese make efforts to anything? . Tokyo: Daisan-shokan. Ando, S. (1986). Nihongo no ronri, eigo no ronri (The logic of Japanese language and the logic of English language). Tokyo: Taishukan. Barnlund, D. C. (1975). Public and private self in Japan and the United States: Communicative Styles of two cultures. Tokyo: Simul Press. Bar-Tal, D. (1976). Prosocial behavior: Thory and research. NY: Halsted Press. Bruneau, T. (1988). Conceptualizing and using empathy in intercultural contexts. Human Communication Studies,16,37-70. 30 Intercultural Communication Studies XV: 1 2006 Hara Bruneau, T. 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Knowledge & Understanding questions Essay

1.1 Describe a range of causes of dementia syndrome ANSWER Neurodegenerative diseases is a common cause of dementia which mean that the brain cells known at the neurons either are degenerating therefore the neuron die off quicker which will lead to a more decline in the person mental health such as memory, language and sometimes their physical abilities all depending on which area of the brain is infected. Dementia affects the brain and the loss of function of the brain in such a way that the things we normally take for granted, for example our ability to remember things (time, date, events, to use language all of these things begin to disappear. Also there are more causes of dementia caused by depression, brain tumours, thyroid hormone, and head injuries. Some of these causes of dementia can also be dementia –like conditions which may be treatable or non-progressive. These neurodegenerative diseases are known to us as Alzheimer’s fronto temporal dementia, and Lewy bodies are where over time a build up of abnormal protein deposits in the brain cause the gradual change and damage to the neurons which will cause the shrinkage of the brain. 1.2 Describe the types of memory impairment commonly experienced by individuals with dementia ANSWER Dementia is a collection of symptoms including memory loss, personality change, and impaired intellectual functions resulting from disease or trauma to the brain. These changes are not part of normal ageing and are severe enough to impact daily living skills, independence, and relationships, while Alzheimer’s disease is the most common type of dementia, there are also many other forms, including vascular and mixed dementia. Common signs and symptoms of dementia may include: Memory loss Impaired judgement Difficulties with abstract thinking Faulty reasoning Inappropriate behaviour Loss or communication skills Disorientation to time and place Gait, motor and balance problems Neglect of personal care and safety Hallucinations, paranoia, agitation. The most common forms of mental decline associated with ageing are: Slower thinking and problem solving Decreased attention and concentration Slower recall As the dementia progresses the individual ability to look after themselves from day to day may also become affected. 1.3 Explain the way that individuals process information with reference to the abilities and limitations of individuals with dementia ANSWER The working of the brain are very complex, the human brain is made up of around 100 billion cells, main these cells are called neurons. If the neurons is switched off is resting when it is switched on it fires electrical impulses along its body known as the axon. Some people with dementia often confuse things, this may be very distressing for their family or carers, but can be called as a natural aspect of their memory loss. An individual with dementia may be trying to interpret a world that no longer makes sense to them that because them brain is processing the information incorrectly. An individual with dementia may receive care from a provider who does not maintain a good standard of continuity with their staff, for a person with dementia it is very important as they must become familiar with  the people who care for them to gain trust and familiarity with their daily routine. Communication could not be structured correctly for the person who causes confusion and lack of understanding as they are unable to comprehend what is expected of them. Infections, change of medication, change of environment, pain and stress, social skills, understanding and interaction levels may decrease or fluctuate. However an individual process the information in different ways therefore depending on their abilities will depend on their limitations as suffering with Dementia. 1.4 Explain how other factors can cause changes in an individual’s condition that may not be attributable to dementia ANSWER Change of diet, environment, and medication can cause changes in an individual condition; in spite of the fact experiencing a loss of reduction in memory does not mean always indicate a form of dementia. There are many other conditions which could affect an individual health which can be a difference between dementia, depression and confusional state. Sensory changes due to age related degeneration example macular degeneration and cataracts affecting vision, loss of hearing and increase of tinnitus affecting balance, reduced metabolism causing poor appetite. The part of the brain which was affected will determine how the person will be affected. Some condition that may affect the memory are listed below: Brain injury- which can be caused by an external trauma such as a blow to the head or internal factors such as a result of a stroke or aneurism. Brain tumour – a tumour of the brain can be benign (slow growing, non cancerous) or malignant Medication – some prescription medication can have side effects which can affect somebody’s memory. Diet – some foods can have an effect on a person’s memory. Stress –is the emotional and physical strain caused by individual’s response to pressure from the outside world. Stress can affect an individual’s health in many ways, including memory difficulties. 1.5 Explain why the abilities and needs of an individual with dementia may fluctuate ANSWER Each individual may experience dementia in different ways. There is no definitive direction or path that the condition will follow and there are no exact timescales in which the condition may progress. Somebody with dementia can have â€Å"good days† and â€Å"bad days†. Believed all depends on how we are feeling, how much sleep we have had, and what activity we are doing and how much we want to do that activity. On the other hand changes that may occur in their day to day life, changes of people (changes of carers on a regular basis), therefore not being consistent in a routine programme. 2.1 Describe the impact of early diagnosis and follow up to diagnosis ANSWER Generally speaking for most people receiving the diagnosis of dementia is very distressing, also can be very upsetting for their loves one. Many people in nowadays still, think of dementia as being a condition which causes people to go â€Å"crazy†. When supporting somebody who is exhibiting any signs or symptoms of forgetfulness, confusion or the inability to find the right words when communicating, it is important that they see their GP. In the early stages diagnosis can be difficult to make as the symptoms of dementia can develop slowly, also the symptoms can be similar to symptoms of other health condition. The early diagnosis of dementia is essential in order to: Rule out other conditions that may be treatable Access advice, information and support Allow the person with dementia and their family to plan and make arrangements for the future. Although there is not cure at the present, there are various medications available which can help improve symptoms and possibly to slow down the progression of disease. Following diagnosis, an individual may want to live as independently as they can. In order to aid a person to self look after themselves, the individual could place a list of important telephone numbers by their phone, labels also could be placed on cupboards doors to  remind them of the contents. However the quality of life, fear, feeling lack of control, loss of dignity, loss of identity, invasion of privacy, fear or losing own home, inability to communicate needs and preferences, loss of friends , increased risk of falls, nutrition, personal hygiene all of these factors are playing a huge impact in an individual life diagnosed with dementia. 2.2 Explain the importance of recording possible signs or symptoms of dementia in an individual in line with agreed ways of working ANSWER The recording signs or symptoms of dementia in an individual day by day life can be made, depends of the policies and procedures of the company such as verbal, written, electronic, accurate, timely, and confidential reporting. When monitoring somebody’s condition, it is important to record any findings in line with the organisation’s policies and procedures. The following areas area those which it is very important to monitor and record in the person, as these will show what changes have occurred and over what period: Memory Behaviour Personality Ability to cope with daily living skills Care- giving strategies Activities that person enjoys Any medication that they have taken that day Below are shown some key points in importance of recording: To obtain specific facts about health, personal matters To measure accurately the individual needs To ensure health and safety of all involved To accurately record the action agreed To ensure nutrition needs are accurately met To make sure hygiene needs are met Follow the Smart model( specific, measurable, realistic and time based) to be  sure the individuals family and carers have their needs met. 2.3 Explain the process of reporting possible signs of dementia within agreed ways of working ANSWER The diagnosis of dementia does not always occur from the first visit to GP. Generally there is a process in which the person goes through in order to receive a definitive diagnosis. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence has advised guidelines in supporting people with dementia, where the early diagnosis of dementia it is included. The person history A cognitive and mental state examination A physical examination A review of all medication including over the counter remedies To report a concern, the organisation’s guidelines and procedures have to be followed, usually most reports are given to a designated member of staff, this may be line manager, supervisor or manager, always try to avoid by giving the personal opinion. Also agreed ways of working may be: Medical diagnosis Referral pathway Diagnosis tests Profiling Observation Care planning Review Follow up Continuation of care 2.4 Describe the possible impact of receiving a diagnosis of dementia on: A) The individual B) Their family and friends ANSWER The impact on the person and their family receiving a diagnosis of dementia can vary, some may see it as a relief that the cause if their difficulties has been diagnosed while others may be in disbelief, preferring not to acknowledge what they have been told. Impact on the individual: Confusion Shock Frightened Denial of failings Disorientation Trying to construct sense of meaning into the situation Destruction of hope Loss of future goals May have to retire early Financial implications May need to stop driving Loss of socialisation Whatever feeling the diagnosis creates in the person, you should encourage and support them to talk about their feelings. Impact on family and friends: Loss of socialisation Increased stress levels Feeling of guilt Need to balance commitments Anger Loss of financial support/ increased financial needs Fear Feeling embarrassed The individual’s family and friends should respect the wishes of their loved one. 3.1 Compare a person-centred and a non-person-centred approach to dementia care ANSWER When an individual been diagnosed with dementia it is important to bear in mind that people with dementia are individuals first, with their condition of dementia coming second. They may also be mothers, fathers, brothers, sisters, sons or daughters. Person-centred care is a way of providing care with the person at the centre of everything you do, or another way of describing it is individualised care- care that is given to the person according their needs, wishes, beliefs and preferences. Studies have shown that a person-centred approach can help reduce agitation in the person with dementia where the agitation is often causes by the person’s frustration in not being able to express themselves . Recognising individuality Enabling choices Enabling social relationships Valuing the individual Providing the opportunity for stimulation Inclusion Looking at the person a s unified whole Once a person needs have been identified, plans should be made to draw up a support plan which will describe how those needs will be met. Nothing should be planned for the individuals for them without them. A non person-centred approach can be identify such as: Dictating form of care to be used Not recognising the individual’s uniqueness and needs Exclusion Lack of choice Not allowing participation in decision making Not allowing the individual to exercise their rights Responding to behaviour rather than looking at the unified whole Not empowering the individual 3.2 Describe a range of different techniques that can be used to meet the fluctuating abilities and needs of the individual with dementia ANSWER Many people with dementia are able to live in their own homes for most their lives with care being given to them by their families. As a carer or support for those suffering with dementia, must focus on the skills and abilities that the person has, rather those that they have lost. Ensure that they are fully aware of and respect the person’s background, their history, likes and dislikes. Be prepared for changes and adapt flexible approach. Not every day may be the same in supporting people with dementia. By learning about each individual ‘history and background, can be designed the care and the type of support provided around their specific needs. Ensure that individual’s support plan is kept as up to date as possible and shows alternative methods to use for various fluctuations in their support needs, share the information with the rest of the carers., provide a stable environment and suitable surroundings as one of the main triggers resulting in somebody with dementia becoming agitated and confused is a change in their routine. To ensure stability it is important to : Have consistent, regular staff, unfamiliar faces can cause the person great upset Maintain a familiar environment, if there some new decorations needs to be undertaken try to make the new decor similar if not the same as it was previously. Ensure that the individual is in a non stressful, constant and familiar environment Establish a regular routine regular physical activity and adequate exposure to light and improve any sleep disturbances.

Literature Search

Grap, Mary. ,Munro, Cindy. , Hummel, Russel. , Jessica. , Elswick, and Sessler Curtis. 2005. Effect of Backrest Elevation on the Development of Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia. AACN. Retrieved from ajcc. aacnjournals. org on March 3, 2012. Abstract †¢ Background Ventilator-associated pneumonia is a common complication of mechanical ventilation. Backrest position and time spent supine are critical risk factors for aspiration, increasing the risk for pneumonia. Empirical evidence of the effect of backrest positions on the incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia, especially during mechanical ventilation over time, is limited. Objective To describe the relationship between backrest elevation and development of ventilator-associated pneumonia. †¢ Methods : It is a nonexperimental, longitudinal, descriptive design was used. The Clinical Pulmonary Infection Score was used to determine ventilator-associated pneumonia. Backrest elevation was measured continuously with a transdu cer system. Data were obtained from laboratory results and medical records from the start of mechanical ventilation up to 7 days. †¢ Results Sixty-six subjects were monitored (276 patient days).Mean backrest elevation for the entire study period was 21. 7 °. Backrest elevations were less than 30 ° 72% of the time and less than 10 ° 39% of the time. The mean Clinical Pulmonary Infection Score increased but not significantly, and backrest elevation had no direct effect on mean scores. A model for predicting the Clinical Pulmonary Infection Score at day 4 included baseline score, percentage of time spent at less than 30 ° on study day 1, and score on the Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II, explaining 81% of the variability (F=7. 1, P=. 003). Literature Search 3 †¢ Conclusions Subjects spent the majority of the time at backrest elevations less than 30 °. Only the combination of early, low backrest elevation and severity of illness affected the incidenc e of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Amelia Ross. (2006). The impact of an evidence-based practice education program on the role of oral care in the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Retrieved from, www. elsevierhealth. com/journals/iccn. on March 2, 2012.Abstract BACKGROUND: Despite strong evidence in the literature on the role of oral care in the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP), nurses continue to view oral care as a comfort measure with low priority and utilize foam swabs rather than toothbrushes. Although an evidence-based oral care protocol existed and best-practice oral care tools were available, the VAP rates had not significantly decreased even though nurses reported providing oral care. OBJECTIVES:The aim of the study was to determine if an evidence-based practice (EBP) educational program would improve the quality of oral care delivered to mechanically ventilated patients; thereby, reducing the VAP rate. RESULTS: Improvement in oral health was demonstrated by a decrease in median scores on the Oral Assessment Guide (pre (11. 0), post (9. 0)). A t-test analysis revealed a statistically significant difference (p=0. 0002). The frequency of oral care documentation also improved as demonstrated by a positive shift to the more frequent timeframes. The VAP rates have decreased by 50% following the EBP education Literature Search 4 ntervention. CONCLUSIONS: The implementation of an EBP educational program focused on patient outcome rather than a task to be performed improved the quality of oral care delivered by the nursing staff. Carolyn L. , Cason, Tracy, Tyner. , Sue, Saunders, Lisa, Broom. , 2007. Nurses Implementation of Guidelines for Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. AACN. Retrieved from ajcc. aacnjournals. org on March 1, 2012. Abstract †¢ Background Ventilator-associated pneumonia accounts for 47% of infections in patients in intensive care units.Adherence to t he best nursing practices recommended in the 2003 guidelines for the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention should reduce the risk of ventilator-associated pneumonia. †¢ Objective To evaluate the extent to which nurses working in intensive care units implement best practices when managing adult patients receiving mechanical ventilation. †¢ Methods Nurses attending education seminars in the United States completed a 29-item questionnaire about the type and frequency of care provided. †¢ Results Twelve hundred nurses completed the questionnaire.Most (82%) reported compliance with hand-washing guidelines, 75% reported wearing gloves, half reported elevating the head of the bed, a third reported performing subglottic suctioning, and half reported having an oral care protocol in their hospital. Nurses in hospitals with an oral care protocol reported better compliance with hand washing and maintaining head-of-bed el evation, were more likely to regularly provide oral care, and were more familiar with rates of ventilator-associated pneumonia and the organisms involved than were nurses working in hospitals without such protocols.Literature Search5 †¢ Conclusions The guidelines for the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention are not consistently or uniformly implemented. Practices of nurses employed in hospitals with oral care protocols are more often congruent with the guidelines than are practices of nurses employed in hospitals without such protocols. Significant reductions in rates of ventilator-associated pneumonia may be achieved by broader implementation of oral care protocols. Grap, Mary. ,Munro, Cindy. , Hummel, Russel. , Jessica. Elswick, and Sessler Curtis. 2005. Effect of Backrest Elevation on the Development of Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia. AACN. Retrieved from ajcc. aacnjournals. org on March 3, 2012. Abstract †¢ Background Ventilator-associated pneumonia is a common complication of mechanical ventilation. Backrest position and time spent supine are critical risk factors for aspiration, increasing the risk for pneumonia. Empirical evidence of the effect of backrest positions on the incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia, especially during mechanical ventilation over time, is limited. Objective To describe the relationship between backrest elevation and development of ventilator-associated pneumonia. †¢ Methods : It is a nonexperimental, longitudinal, descriptive design was used. The Clinical Pulmonary Infection Score was used to determine ventilator-associated pneumonia. Backrest elevation was measured continuously with a transducer system. Data were obtained from laboratory results and medical records from the start of mechanical ventilation up to 7 days. †¢ Results Sixty-six subjects were monitored (276 patient days).Mean backrest elevation for the entire study period was 2 1. 7 °. Backrest elevations were less than 30 ° 72% of the time and less than 10 ° 39% of the time. The mean Clinical Pulmonary Infection Score increased but not significantly, and backrest elevation had no direct effect on mean scores. A model for predicting the Clinical Pulmonary Infection Score at day 4 included baseline score, percentage of time spent at less than 30 ° on study day 1, and score on the Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II, explaining 81% of the variability (F=7. 1, P=. 003). Literature Search 3 †¢ Conclusions Subjects spent the majority of the time at backrest elevations less than 30 °. Only the combination of early, low backrest elevation and severity of illness affected the incidence of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Amelia Ross. (2006). The impact of an evidence-based practice education program on the role of oral care in the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia. Retrieved from, www. elsevierhealth. com/journals/iccn. on March 2, 2012.Abstract BACKGROUND: Despite strong evidence in the literature on the role of oral care in the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP), nurses continue to view oral care as a comfort measure with low priority and utilize foam swabs rather than toothbrushes. Although an evidence-based oral care protocol existed and best-practice oral care tools were available, the VAP rates had not significantly decreased even though nurses reported providing oral care. OBJECTIVES:The aim of the study was to determine if an evidence-based practice (EBP) educational program would improve the quality of oral care delivered to mechanically ventilated patients; thereby, reducing the VAP rate. RESULTS: Improvement in oral health was demonstrated by a decrease in median scores on the Oral Assessment Guide (pre (11. 0), post (9. 0)). A t-test analysis revealed a statistically significant difference (p=0. 0002). The frequency of oral care documentation also improved as demonstrated by a positive shift to the more frequent timeframes. The VAP rates have decreased by 50% following the EBP education Literature Search 4 ntervention. CONCLUSIONS: The implementation of an EBP educational program focused on patient outcome rather than a task to be performed improved the quality of oral care delivered by the nursing staff. Carolyn L. , Cason, Tracy, Tyner. , Sue, Saunders, Lisa, Broom. , 2007. Nurses Implementation of Guidelines for Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. AACN. Retrieved from ajcc. aacnjournals. org on March 1, 2012. Abstract †¢ Background Ventilator-associated pneumonia accounts for 47% of infections in patients in intensive care units.Adherence to the best nursing practices recommended in the 2003 guidelines for the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention should reduce the risk of ventilator-associated pneumonia. †¢ Objective To evaluate the extent to which nurses working in intensive care units implement best practices when managing adult patients receiving mechanical ventilation. †¢ Methods Nurses attending education seminars in the United States completed a 29-item questionnaire about the type and frequency of care provided. †¢ Results Twelve hundred nurses completed the questionnaire.Most (82%) reported compliance with hand-washing guidelines, 75% reported wearing gloves, half reported elevating the head of the bed, a third reported performing subglottic suctioning, and half reported having an oral care protocol in their hospital. Nurses in hospitals with an oral care protocol reported better compliance with hand washing and maintaining head-of-bed elevation, were more likely to regularly provide oral care, and were more familiar with rates of ventilator-associated pneumonia and the organisms involved than were nurses working in hospitals without such protocols.Literature Search5 †¢ Conclusions Th e guidelines for the prevention of ventilator-associated pneumonia from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention are not consistently or uniformly implemented. Practices of nurses employed in hospitals with oral care protocols are more often congruent with the guidelines than are practices of nurses employed in hospitals without such protocols. Significant reductions in rates of ventilator-associated pneumonia may be achieved by broader implementation of oral care protocols.

Review of Tom Englehardt’s The End of Victory Culture Essay

Like many young men of his generation Tom Englehardt is the son of a World War II veteran and was raised in the shadow of Allied victory over Japan and Germany. It was an era of clearly evil enemies and clearly honorable victors. America was a â€Å"winner†, but according to Englehardt â€Å"between 1945 and 1975 victory culture ended in America† and he â€Å"traces its decomposition through those years of generational loss and societal disillusionment to Vietnam, which was its graveyard for all to see† (10). According to Englehardt’s cover-jacket promotion, â€Å"this remarkable and unexpected history of our time†¦reconstructs a half-century of the crumbling borderlands of American consciousness†¦a nation living an afterlife amid the ruins of its national narrative† (cover-jacket). Further, he presents the question of whether there is â€Å"an imaginable America without enemies and without the story of their slaughter and our triumph? † (Cover-jacket). Perhaps since its publication in 1995 Englehardt has had a chance to reflect on his version of American history and consider how it is that America has lived through its â€Å"afterlife† and despite incredible adversity continues to not just survive, but thrive. Englehardt begins his version of post-war American history with what can only be described as the academically-required survey of All That Was Wrong With America. There is a great value in discovering and analyzing policies and actions in a postmortem sense, for the obvious reason of improving what worked and reworking what failed. There is a great disservice in reviewing history within the context and framework of contemporary thought and morality. The reader gets Englehardt’s version of the European White Man’s conquest of indigenous Americans, the depredations of slavery and lynching, and the unworldly horror of American atomic destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. There is little, if any doubt in any rational person’s mind these were not exactly shining examples of Americana. But his recounting of these events raises questions he is unable to answer. First, and truly not callously, how long should America apologize, if that is what Englehardt demands? Second, with American â€Å"manifest destiny† and the bombing of Japan, just exactly what were the alternatives at the time? Finally, with slavery and the civil rights movement, where is the relevance to Englehardt’s central thesis? At some point realizations are made that we cannot undo historical fact, no matter how unsavory the events were, and ultimately, as a person and as a nation we must move on. Throughout his book Englehardt exhibits a not-so-subtle bias, evident from the onset and which must be taken into account. One need look no closer than the jacket promotion: Englehardt is careful to use the word â€Å"slaughter† in reference to America’s enemies, not â€Å"defeat†. Englehardt traces the â€Å"victory culture† through the media, beginning with the World War II era â€Å"Why We Fight† documentaries and Hollywood’s active war-time production of â€Å"hero† movies (51). In the post-war era â€Å"pride in on-screen westerns and war culture was any boy’s inheritance† (52). Englehardt believes the culture was based â€Å"on an ambush that could touch all but the imagination in only the most limited ways. Now for the first time since the earliest days of the European invasion of North America, the ambush (by nuclear weapons) threatened actual extermination† (52). Again, Englehardt is careful to use the word â€Å"invasion† instead of â€Å"migration† or colonization† preferring to impart a negative connotation whenever possible. For him â€Å"the military-industrial complex grew to monstrous proportions† leading to the first real nuclear standoff in the Cuban Missile Crisis (52-3). Englehardt does not supply any reference to support his claim that â€Å"nothing could rally Americans for such a war† (53). Englehardt writes in a very disjointed manner, alternately discussing the bombing of Japan, the Korean War, communism and McCarthyism, and his father (73). He devotes chapters to children’s toys and his own collection of war figurines (85). He discusses the impact of television, and declares that by the end of the sixties â€Å"war as myth and play seemed to have been swept clean out of American culture† (89). In the span of less than thirty pages Englehardt manages to discuss, and apparently relate, Malcolm X, George Kennan, the Cold War, vampires, Broken Arrow, UFO’s and The Incredible Shrinking Man (90-112). Apparently these all relate to the pronouncements of Malcolm X and Kennan, respectively: â€Å"the whole world knows that the white man cannot survive another war† and Kennan â€Å"marking the spot where his own society threatened to leap of some cliff† (111-112). Englehardt continues his review of the media culture of the late fifties and sixties, once again in a very haphazard and distracting style. It seems he is bent on throwing in every facet of American culture as if to miss any one item would spoil his entire recipe. The reader is left to his discussions of anti-communism and Cuba, juvenile delinquency, civil rights, Dobie Gillis, Mad Magazine, Bill Haley and the Comets, television advertising, Rebel Without a Cause and Happy Days. His chapters read more like the answers to a huge game of Trivia Pursuit than any historical reflection of substance. All he is missing is the game cards: question: who played Josh Randall in Wanted: Dead or Alive? answer: Steve McQueen (152). Somehow, according to Englehardt, it is all related to the demise of victory culture. When after approximately two hundred pages Englehardt finally decides to discuss Vietnam he does so with an expected emphasis on horrors and atrocities. But first he must take the reader through GI Joe (Englehardt takes pains to describe Hasbro’s late entry with â€Å"Negro Joe† and â€Å"She-Joe†), Sergeant Roc, Kennedy assassination conspiracy theory, and Fail Safe (175-187). Any review of substance of the war in Vietnam will by necessity be a huge undertaking, and Englehardt is not to be criticized for discussing what amounts to a â€Å"worst of† list of horrors that faced the Vietnamese, the American soldiers, and the American public. Unfortunately for Englehardt â€Å"the mineshaft has been thoroughly mined† and he brings no new information or analysis to the table. Vietnam was a tremendous â€Å"media war† in terms of coverage and indelible images. A few images, such as the young naked napalmed girl running in fright or the point-blank assassination of a captured Viet Cong soldier, seem to crystallize all of the horror and insanity of that war. Englehardt decides to provide the literary simile, with quotations from veterans describing the horrors and atrocities of My Lai and other villages. It is in a sense gratuitous and repetitious, and serves little purpose other than to reinforce the general negativity of the entire book. Before Englehardt turns his attention to the Desert Storm/Desert Shield operations he first makes the point that previous military operations in Panama and Grenada were unnecessary exhibits of force and quickly dismisses them as â€Å"exaggerated, over referential event(s)† (281). He prefaces his discussion of the Gulf War as â€Å"(in) the new version of victory culture, the military spent no less time planning to control the screen than the battlefield, and the neutralization of a potentially oppositional media became a war goal† (290). It is always remarkable that reporters and journalists who steadfastly claim they have either been manipulated or denied access manage to produce analytical and critical volumes assessing what they allegedly were not allowed to witness. Englehardt reaches the conclusion that in a sense â€Å"the Gulf War was a response to the Japanese and European economic challenges in that it emphasized the leading-edge aspects of the country’s two foremost exports: arms and entertainment† (295). Englehardt finishes his book by revisiting his friend GI Joe, who has â€Å"been running hard to survive in a confused world† (302). In closing he states â€Å"what path out of the ruins may be neither Joe nor we understand† (303). It is doubtful Englehardt is on anyone’s â€Å"short list† of consultants to contact regarding the contemporary framework of war. His work is well-researched and thoroughly documented with page upon page of footnotes and references. However what is telling is what is absent from his index. It reads like an encapsulation of American pop culture, as would be expected, with countless references to movies, television, and American icons. It reflects an insulated viewpoint of American â€Å"culture of victory† as seen only through American media. There is a much greater awareness of the geopolitical effects of any conflict, and it is difficult if not impossible to simply pigeon-hole war in outdated terms of American cultural â€Å"heroes† or â€Å"victory†. Ultimately he can take credit with the foresight to see the end of a culture of victory, but events since publication have drastically changed the meaning of â€Å"victory† in war, and unfortunately decrease the relevance of his work. Today’s battlefields in Iraq and Afghanistan reflect America’s greater engagement in a global War on Terror. There is little, if any similarity in the dangers faced today compared to previous military engagements or World Wars. Global terrorism brings a previously unknown dimension to military theorists and analysts. Certainly there is a popular swell of support for the defeat, if not â€Å"slaughter† of Osama bin Laden and the terrorists responsible for the death of civilian non-combatants. But there is less a sense of a desire for a â€Å"victory culture† as there is for a â€Å"survival culture†. Without saying as much Englehardt could stand for the premise, as any wise man would, that pacifism is preferred to war, and in war the victors are often vanquished as well. That takes a world far different from the one that exists today. There is no doubt America is the superpower but it does not operate in a vacuum; today there is a broader and stronger global mandate for peace than any American desire for victory in war. At the time of publication The End of Victory Culture may have reflected â€Å"a confused world† with â€Å"paths not understood†. Since September 11, 2001 events have given clarity to any confusion, and the path to safety and survival must be followed.

Business Assignment 6 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Business Assignment 6 - Essay Example Teams are formed with organizations to address specific issues, challenges, or problems. Members of a team should therefore be individuals who are aware of the problems or the needs of the group and are as well willing to contribute in finding the solution as well as making the situation better than it already is. If an organization has a financial crisis, for instance, accountants, economists, financial analysts and others who understand the organization’s financial trends should form the core of the team. Knowledgeable people enhance understanding of the team and hence smooth meetings (Dyer & Dyer, 2013). The most important aspect of a team meeting should be what the members are supposed to discuss in those meetings, the agenda. Agenda setting is the second step for team meeting management. With an agenda well set, team meetings are half on course of delivering their mandates. Team meetings should have agendas that are specific, measurable, attainable, realistic and time bound to deliver instantly (Dyer & Dyer, 2013). A team should comprise of individuals who are ready to work both for themselves and for the other members of the team. Team members, therefore should bear tasks and responsibilities that aid in the accomplishment of the objectives of the team (Kayser, 2011). Not all the activities of the team can be left to specific individuals, but each team member should at least contribute to those activities. Either, communications and contributions in meetings should allow for the participation of at least the interest of every member. In the formulation of the agenda for any committee meeting, time should be a factor worth a critical consideration. Too long meetings or too short meetings barely deliver amicable solutions to organizations. In addition, the best times for meetings are when the members are fresh in mind and ready to contribute. Time management contributes to the quality of the meeting

Epistemology and the Legend of the Sphinx in Oedipus Rex Research Paper

Epistemology and the Legend of the Sphinx in Oedipus Rex - Research Paper Example The idea of pharmakos in Oedipus Rex is embodied in the interaction between the sphinx and Oedipus and how the sphinx guards and reveals knowledge. Pharmakos is the idea that there is a duality to things; that an item can be both a cure and a poison. The sphinx is used as a pharmakos in Oedipus Rex because not only does her physical appearance portray a duality, but also her riddles conceal knowledge in their ambiguity, but also in a sense, reveal truth concerning Oedipus and the Greek society. Epistemology Epistemology can be defined as the branch of philosophy that looks at the nature, origin, methods, as well as limits of human knowledge. It seeks to answer the question of how to distinguish true knowledge from false knowledge. One of the outstanding epistemological problems in Oedipus Rex is the ambiguity presented in terms of the nature and extents of Oedipus’ knowledge about his true origins (Carel 103). Many philosophers have argued that Oedipus may have been too ignora nt to figure out facts about his past. However, at the beginning of the play, his intelligence is well portrayed when he is the only man who has the ability to solve the riddle of the sphinx. This ambiguity brings forth the vagueness of the extent to which Oedipus can and should be held responsible for his actions, which are: killing his biological father and marrying his own mother. Sophocles tells the story of Oedipus in reverse: he starts with the ending and goes to explain how it happened. According to the oracle, the plague that has befallen Thebes will find no cure until the person responsible for the murder of King Laius is found and expelled from the city. Oedipus starts an investigation to reveal the murderer, but this investigation quickly turns into an investigation of Oedipus’ real identity. Initially the epistemology lies around finding an answer to the question â€Å"who did it†, but this changes course to the question â€Å"who am I?† (Foster 22)T he psychological journey of discovery takes up much of this story. Knowledge is supposed to end with gratification and satisfaction. However, in this story, epistemology led to a discovery that was more tragic than the events that led to the discovery itself. The Sphinx The word sphinx comes form the Greek verb which when translated means â€Å"to squeeze† or to tighten (Gosse 65). Some historians however argue that the word is a corruption of the Egyptian word â€Å"shesepankh† which translates to â€Å"living image† (Zivie-Coche and Lorton 9). In Greek mythology the Sphinx is represented as having a serpent’s tail, a lion’s hunches, a large bird’s wings and a woman’s breast and face. This malevolent creature is normally characterized as being merciless and treacherous. She is the demon of bad luck and destruction and kills and mauls those who fail to correctly answer her riddle. According to myths, the sphinx was the guardian of the gates into the City of Thebes. To be allowed entry, one had to correctly answer her riddle. The riddle is â€Å"which creature has four legs in the morning, two at midday and three in the evening, and the more legs it has, the weaker it is? It is said that no man had ever been able to give a correct answer to the riddle (10). Oedipus was the only one who gave the correct answer which was ‘man’. After Oedipus gave the correct answer, the sphinx is said to have been infuriated and she killed herself. The original purpose of the sphinx